ASTRONOMERS

Nicolaus Copernicus

: Nikolaus Kopernikus; Italian: Nicolò Copernico; Polish: Mikołaj Kopernik; in his youth, Niclas Koppernigk;19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance astronomer and the first person to formulate a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe.

Copernicus' epochal book, De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), published just before his death in 1543, is often regarded as the starting point of modern astronomy and the defining epiphany that began the scientific revolution. His heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a landmark in the history of science that is often referred to as the Copernican Revolution.

Among the great polymaths of the Renaissance, Copernicus was a mathematician, astronomer, physician, quadrilingual polyglot, classical scholar, translator,artist,Catholic cleric, jurist, governor, military leader, diplomat and economist. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than anavocation—yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.

GALILEO GALILEY 

Based only on uncertain descriptions of the first practical telescope, invented by Hans Lippershey in the Netherlands in 1608, Galileo, in the following year, made a telescope with about 3x magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30x magnification. With a Galilean telescope the observer could see magnified, upright images on the earth—it was what is commonly known as a terrestrial telescope, or spyglass. He could also use it to observe the sky; for a time he was one of those who could construct telescopes good enough for that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early elescopes, with a magnification of about 8 or 9, to Venetian lawmakers. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline for Galileo selling them to merchants who found them useful both at sea and as items of trade. He published his initial telescopic astronomical observations in March 1610 in a brief treatise entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).

On 7 January 1610 Galileo observed with his telescope what he described at the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, and lying on a straight line through it.Observations on subsequent nights showed that the positions of these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing in a way that would have been inexplicable if they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January Galileo noted that one of them had disappeared, an observation which he attributed to its being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few days he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: He had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest satellites (moons). He discovered the fourth on 13 January. These satellites are now called Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. Galileo named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers.Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer.

Johannes Kepler

 (1571-1628). Born in Leonberg, Germany, where he began studying Latinat school. In 1584 he entered the Protestant seminary of Adelberg and in 1589 began hiseducation in theology at the Protestant University of Tübingen. There he was influenced by a mathematics professor, Michael Maestlin, a supporter of the heliocentric theory of planetary motion first developed by the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Kepler immediately accepted the Copernican theory to believe that the simplicity of its planetary system must have been God's plan.

ARTS OR CRAFTS

INCAS

The Inca culture began to build after the establishment of this community in the UrubambaRiver valley from the Aymara culture, the repository turn of centuries of cultural training. With the expansion of empire, it was absorbing new cultural expressions of peoples attached and placed in the current territories of Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina.

Agriculture.Platforms or terraces to prevent erosion and make the slopes and hills.Waru Waru, a technique derived from his brothers in the highlands, in which plowed furrowsaround crops and filled them with water to create a microclimate more stable environment.Dry ponds were filled during the rainy season. It was widely used on the coast. They simply called lagoons (quchakuna).


QUESTIONS


How did the Incas live?
The Incas believed in two ideas that were the basis of all Andean societies and without which they would not have achieved their success as an empire: reciprocity and redistribution..

MYTHS

Myth is the secret opening through which the inexhaustible energies of the cosmos pour into human cultural manifestation. Religions, philosophies, arts, the social forms of primitive and historic man, prime discoveries in science and technology, the very dreams that blister sleep, boil up from the basic, magic ring of myth.

Myht:
But long long ago, in the far west had a cowboy named Bill The MaliAnta and took away allthe money and forced to pay taxes and Farla all their food until one day a masked cowboyand did justice MaliAnta the bill and won in a shootout to death and people said and maskedcowboy was his hero and his sheriff and would take care of any wrongdoing. END


5 questions
 Why are they heroes?
Why wear masks?
Why are secret?
Where do they live?
Why are they?

LEWIS & CLARK & SACAGAWEA....¡

Lewis and Clark Expedition

(1804–1806) was the first United States expedition to the Pacific Coast. Commissioned by President Thomas Jefferson and led by two Virginia-born veterans of Indian wars in the Ohio Valley, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, the expedition had several goals. Their objects were both scientific and commercial – to study the area's plants, animal life, and geography, and to discover how the region could be exploited economically. According to Jefferson himself, one goal was to find a "direct & practicable water communication across this continent, for the purposes of commerce with Asia" (the Northwest Passage) Jefferson also placed special importance on declaring U.S. sovereignty over the Native American tribes along the Missouri River, and getting an accurate sense of the resources in the recently-completed Louisiana Purchase^. They were accompanied by a fifteen-year-old Shoshone Indian woman, Sacagawea, the wife of a French-Canadian fur trader. After crossing the Rocky Mountains, the expedition reached the Pacific Ocean in the area of present-day Oregon (which lay beyond the nation's new boundaries) in November 1805. They returned in 1806, bringing with them an immense amount of information about the region as well as numerous plant and animal specimens. Reports about geography, plant and animal life, and Indian cultures filled their daily journals. Although Lewis and Clark failed to find a commercial route to Asia, they demonstrated the possibility of overland travel to the Pacific coast. They found Native Americans in the trans-Mississippi West accustomed to dealing with European traders and already connected to global markets. The success of their journey helped to strengthen the idea that United States territory was destined to reach all the way to the Pacific. Although the expedition did make notable achievements in science scientific research itself was not the main goal behind the mission^.

^Collage

Comparisioon Structures

The Most adjectives :

Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the sentence. The Articles  a, an, and the   are adjectives.

Adjectives are one of the traditional eight English parts of  sepech, though linguistics today distinguish adjectives from words such as determiners  that were formerly considered to be adjectives. In this paragraph, "traditional" is an adjective, and in the preceding paragraph, main and more are.

EXAMPLES 

• That's an interesting idea. (attributive)
• That idea is interesting. (predicative)
• Tell me something interesting. (post-positive)
• The good, the bad, and the ugly. (substantive)

     

MODALS

Modals functions:

Modal auxiliary verbs give more information about the function of the main verb that follows it. Although having a great variety of communicative functions, these functions can all be related to a scale ranging from possibility ("may") to necessity ("must"). Within this scale there are two functional divisions:

• epistemic, concerned with the theoretical possibility of propositions being true or not true (including likelihood, and certainty); and
• deontic, concerned with possibility and necessity in terms of freedom to act (including ability, permission, and duty).

The following sentences illustrate the two uses of must:

• epistemic: You must be starving. 
• deontic: You must leave now.
• ambiguous: You must speak Spanish.
  • epistemic = "It is surely the case that you speak Spanish.
  • deontic = "It is a requirement that you speak Spanish.

Epistemic modals can be analyzed as raising verbs , while deontic modals can be analyzed as control verbs.

Another use of modal auxiliaries is to indicate "dynamic modality", which refer to properties such as ability or disposition. Some examples of this are "can" in English, "können" in German, and "possum" in Latin. For example, "I can say that in English," "Ich kann das auf Deutsch sagen," and "Illud Latine dicere possum."

WHEN DO YOU USE THEM MODALS ?The combination of helping verbs with main verbs creates what are called verb phrases or verb strings. In the following sentence, "will have been" are helping or auxiliary verbs and "studying" is the main verb; the whole verb string is underlined

How do we use Modals?

Modals have always differed from ordinary verbs in Germanic, and in the course of the history of English, they have diverged from verbs even further, to the point where they now belong to a syntactic category of their own. Because many modals have meanings that are often expressed in other languages by verbal inflections, this syntactic category is called I(nflection). In what follows, we review the ways that modals differ from verbs in English, both morphologically (what forms they exhibit) and syntactically (how they combine in sentences).

 

EXAMPLES:

1.Can
2.Could
3.May
4.Might
5.Must
6.Should
7.Will
8.Would

History of cowboys

The cowboys!

A cowboy is an animal herder who tends cattle on ranches in North America, traditionally on horseback, and often performs a multitude of other ranch-related tasks.

Where they live the cowboys?
There are a few where I live in Oklahoma and I know there is a community outside Guthrie Oklahoma where there are many black cowboys/farmers. Where else? I'm asking because I would like to move to some place new. My kids and I were raised in and love the country or
the old oeste

They lived in huts and farms and leave to ride a horse and shooting competitions were doing. 

Cowboy hat: a hat with a wide brim for sun protection. There are many styles, influenced by 'Boss of the Plains' by John B. Stetson, a design based on a mix of Mexican hat and the hats of the Union and Confederate cavalry.
Bandana: a cotton handkerchief, it has many uses, from cleaning the sweat to protecting the face of sandstorms. In modern times it uses more of a silk handkerchief.
Cowboy boots: a high boot to protect the legs, leading to help fit your foot in the stirrup, and plugs to prevent the foot slipping off the saddle, may or may not have spurs.
Chaps: protect the rider's legs when he goes riding, especially when heavy work is with cattle.
Jeans or other tight pants made ​​of denim, designed to protect the legs. Well-made jeans have a soft inner seam to protect the inner thigh and knee while riding.
Gloves: they are generally of deerskin or other leather is soft and flexible for work purposes, while providing protection when working with barbed wire, or blasted weeds.

,...........................

COMPASSES

Magnetic compass

The magnetic compass consists of a magnetized pointer (usually marked on the North end) free to align itself with Earth's magnetic field. A compass is any magnetically sensitive device capable of indicating the direction of the magnetic north of a planet's magnetosphere. The face of the compass generally highlights the cardinal points of north, south, east and west. Often, compasses are built as a stand alone sealedinstrument with a magnetized bar or needle turning freely upon a pivot, or moving in a fluid, thus able to point in a northerly and southerly direction.

The compass greatly improved the safety and efficiency of travel, especially ocean travel. A compass can be used to calculate heading, used with a sextant to calculate latitude, and with a marine chronometer to calculate longitude. It thus provides a much improved navigational capability that has only been recently supplanted by modern devices such as the Global Positioning System (GPS).

The compass was invented in ancient China around  and was used for navigation by the 11th century. The dry compass was invented in medieval Europe around .This was supplanted in the early 20th century by the liquid-filled magnetic compass.

Navigational compass

The invention of the navigational compass is generally credited by scholars to the ancient Chinese, who began using compasses first for feng-shui and then later for navigation sometime before the 11th century. The compass later appeared in Europe, India, and the Middle East due to the formation of the Mongol Empire by Genghis Khan which effectly eliminated all previous national barriers within the empire and allowed the safe transfer and transportation of both people and intellectual knowledge across the silk road from China to Europe and Midlle East.

Dry compass:

 The dry mariner's compass was invented in Europe around 1300. The dry mariner's compass consists of three elements: A freely pivoting needle on a pin enclosed in a little box with a glass cover and a wind rose, whereby "the wind rose or compass card is attached to a magnetized needle in such a manner that when placed on a pivot in a box fastened in line with the keel of the ship the card would turn as the ship changed direction, indicating always what course the ship was on". Later, compasses were often fitted into a gimbal mounting to reduce grounding of the needle or card when used on the pitching and rolling deck of a ship.

While pivoting needles in glass boxes had already been described by the French scholar Peter Peregrinus in 1269,and by the Egyptian scholar Ibn Simʿūn in 1300,traditionally Flavio Gioja (fl. 1302), an Italian pilot from Amalfi, has been credited with perfecting the sailor's compass by suspending its needle over a compass card, thus giving the compass its familiar appearance.Such a compass with the needle attached to a rotating card is also described in a commentary on Dante's Divine Comedyfrom 1380, while an earlier source refers to a portable compass in a box (1318),supporting the notion that the dry compass was known in Europe by then.

Bearing compass:

A bearing compass is a magnetic compass mounted in such a way that it allows the taking of bearings of objects by aligning them with the lubber line of the bearing compass.^[46] A surveyor's compass is a specialized compass made to accurately measure heading of landmarks and measure horizontal angles to help with map making. These were already in common use by the early 18th century and are described in the 1728 Cyclopaedia. The bearing compass was steadily reduced in size and weight to increase portability, resulting in a model that could be carried and operated in one hand. In 1885, a patent was granted for a hand compass fitted with a viewing prism and lens that enabled the user to accurately sight the heading of geographical landmarks, thus creating the prismatic compass.Another sighting method was by means of a reflective mirror. First patented in 1902, the Bézard compass consisted of a field compass with a mirror mounted above it.This arrangement enabled the user to align the compass with an objective while simultaneously viewing its bearing in the mirror.

Liquid compass:

The liquid compass is a design in which the magnetized needle or card is damped by fluid to protect against excessive swing or wobble, improving readability while reducing wear. A rudimentary working model of a liquid compass was introduced by Sir Edmund Halley at a meeting of the Royal Society in 1690.^[54] However, as early liquid compasses were fairly cumbersome and heavy, and subject to damage, their main advantage was aboard ship. Protected in a binnacle and normally gimbal-mounted, the liquid inside the compass housing effectively damped shock and vibration, while eliminating excessive swing and grounding of the card caused by the pitch and roll of the vessel. The first liquid mariner's compass believed practicable for limited use was patented by the Englishman Francis Crow in 1813.Liquid-damped marine compasses for ships and small boats were occasionally used by the British Royal Navy from the 1830s through 1860, but the standard Admiralty compass remained a dry-mount type.n the latter year, the American physicist and inventor Edward Samuel Ritchie patented a greatly improved liquid marine compass that was adopted in revised form for general use by the U.S. Navy, and later purchased by the Royal Navy as well.

Modern compasses

Modern compasses usually use a magnetized needle or dial inside a capsule completely filled with fluid (oil, kerosene, or alcohol is common). While older designs commonly incorporated a flexible diaphragm or airspace inside the capsule to allow for volume changes caused by temperature or altitude, modern liquid compasses utilize smaller housings and/or flexible materials for the capsule itself to accomplish the same result. The fluid dampens the movement of the needle and causes the needle to stabilize quickly rather than oscillate back and forth around magnetic north. North on the needle or dial, as well as other key points are often marked with phosphorescent, photoluminescent, or self-luminous materials  to enable the compass to be read at night or in poor light.

Thumb compass